Kate Kolar
Dr. Wadoski
ENGL 4120
19 November 2015
Stoicism and Metaphysical Poetry
Like other schools of philosophy, Stoicism strives to rationalize humanity’s existence and purpose. Its fundamental ideals regarding logic, physics, and ethics survived the test of time and eventually adapted to Christian beliefs in the 17th and 18th century. Stoicism’s presence within Christian thinking inspired discourse on the human condition and the importance of virtue while being exposed to the wildly tempting physical world. Although Stoicism did not begin as a Christian movement, it eventually became a major influence for rationalizing man’s relationship with the divine. With the help of figures like Justus Lispius and his contemporaries, metaphysical poets were able to utilize Neo-stoic principles as a way to justify their conceits and overall thematic messages.
The philosopher, Zeno, first created stoicism in Ancient Greece during the Hellenistic period. It’s three main parts: physics, logic, and ethics all contribute to the overarching theory that all knowledge was gathered through the senses. By stating the importance of the physical world around us, Stoicism states that unity between the consciousness and the body is found through sensation and experience as opposed to conceptualization in the mind, as other philosophers, like Plato, asserted. The aspect of physics and the physical world are key components due to the belief that the world demands unity. By considering all aspects of life, including relationships with the divine, to be physical matter, humanity is able to rationalize that all of their higher thinking is due to the senses receiving information from the world around us. Stoicism’s unique brand of physics also considers that humanity is built upon a series of causes and effects. The body receives information through the senses, which is comprehended by the soul that then produces movement from the body. Through this reasoning it is concluded that all things must be of the same substance, physical matter. Stoics also used this reasoning to develop the idea that the law of the universe is that free will does not exist. Every action a human makes is out of necessity or can be traced to a cause, our mind only serves to consent to this need.
By first rationalizing the physical aspects of the world, ancient Stoics were also able to create a strict code for morality. They defined morality as rational action. According to ancient Stoicism humanity’s aptitude for morality does not come from an individual’s emotional drive, but the inherent ability to think rationally. To achieve the highest level of rationality, Stoics rejected all passions and worldly temptations. The considered virtue to be good, vice to be bad, and the rest of the world to be irrelevant. They called this practice apathea, which means perfect indifference. This perfect indifference would ideally lead to true wisdom, the virtue Stoics considered to the foundation of their beliefs.
Over the centuries, Stoicism began to evolve into the ideas seen in metaphysical poetry and our more modern understanding. Though the philosophy had loose connections to Christianity and its beliefs, the conscious move towards the connection of the two was not made until the late 16th century. Societal turmoil concerning politics and war in the Netherlands inspired Justus Lispius to apply the teachings of Stoic philosophers to Christianity as a way to cope with the distress. His publication, De Constantia in public malis, incorporated the fundamentals of Ancient Stoicism, but made it more relevant to the current time. For example, he still acknowledges that everything happens by necessity. He finds it most obvious by the temporal nature of all earthly things. All wise men would realize this and follow the law of necessity that includes: “the upright and immovable mental strength, which is neither lifted up nor depressed by external or accidental circumstances” (De constantia I.4) This is in direct correlation with past Stoic teaching due to the rejection of irrelevant matter of the world. Unlike his ancient counterparts, Lispius differs in the assertion that truly following God is the only path to liberty; a concept the Ancient philosophers would not have considered. He also uses this as a way to comfort his audience in times of trouble. The main idea behind the law of necessity and constancy is patience and remaining steadfast in all situations and stages of life. His technique of listing divinae clades, divinely sanctioned disasters orchestrated by God for the good of the human race, gives examples of how tragedy throughout history shows God’s plan. Hopefully by realizing the relativity of their suffering, Lispius’ readership would find more comfort in the act of constancy. De Constantia was originally published in Latin and had over 80 editions between the 16th and 18th centuries published in variety of languages. This brand of relevant Stoicism heavily influenced scholarly and theological thought until the Enlightenment, and allowed Justus Lispius to earn the title of the Father of Neo-Stoicism.
During the 17th century, metaphysical poets greatly embraced the notion of Stoicism. All of the prolific poets of the time were from a more wealthy class and were able to attend university, unlike the majority of people at the time. Their education allowed them to be exposed to Zeno’s Stoic teachings as well as Lispius’ more modern take on the philosophy. This exposure paired with the recent division between the Catholic and Protestant faiths pushed the poets to utilize Stoic ideas as a basis for their self-expression. Major themes of metaphysical poetry include a longing for divine unity and the frustrations with the earthly world, both topics heavily explored by stoics in the past. Stoic teachings also influence many of the poet’s use of conceit within their writing, a common occurrence within the genre. By understanding the root of the comparison, reader’s degree of comprehension will greatly expand.
One of the most prevalent examples of Stoic ideology in metaphysical poetry is the theme of surrendering fully to the will of God. John Donne and George Herbert were both greatly interested in this topic and used their poetry as a means to explore the paradox of the human condition. For example, Donne, in his poem “Holy Sonnet XIV,” states that he can only be pure if ravished by The Lord and only free if imprisoned. These paradoxes convey the inner turmoil that comes having a rational mind compromised by worldly interference. Similarly, in his poem, “The Quip,” George Herbert is encountered with personifications of worldly interference such as Money and Glory. He answers to all of them “But Thou shalt answer, Lord, for me,” (Herbert 8) which reflects the core values of Lipsius’ Neo-Stoicism. The need for unity with the Divine is also another common theme within metaphysical poets. Richard Kreshaw was intrigued with the idea of ekstasis, a Greek word meaning coming into union with the Divine. His poem “On the Assumption” explores this idea by focusing on Mary and her role as both being completely pure and completely human. Her purity separates her from the challenge of managing a pure, rational mind and soul, making her a role model and a conundrum, simultaneously. Donne also focuses on unity, but through the sacrament of communion. The Catholic religion views this act as the most intimate way to interact while Christ while still on this earth. “Holy Sonnet XIV” recognizes this intimacy and expresses the frustration that comes with feeling separated from a higher power.
Another poem that exemplifies the Stoic belief system is the devotional poem, “Changes and Troubles”. Found in a 17th century Commonplace Book, Elizabeth Newell transcribed this poem, but the real author is unknown. The poem addresses the comfort that can be found within Christ, regardless of earthly events. The speaker compares the worries of the world to storms that will not harm you if you trust in The Lord, much like Lispius did to console people in the 16th century. The poem also emphasizes the importance of patience when waiting for Christ’s salvation. Patience is outlined as one of the most important qualities of the rational mind in Stoic beliefs. “Changes and Troubles” clearly explains the only way to escape the “storms” of the world is to turn completely to God, blocking out all other distractions.
The ideology of Stoicism is now a part of modern day Christianity in many ways. Many look to their beliefs for guidance in leading a Holy life, although many of the original Ancient Greek philosophies changed over time. The poets that took interest in the metaphysical and its Stoic roots helped greatly to spread its message. Their application of the ideologies to their personal trials, enhanced their poem’s meaning and helped create metaphysical poetry’s unique style.
Works Cited
Baltzly, Dirk. “Stoicism.” Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2014. Accessed October 17, 2015.
Changes and Troubles- http://brbl-dl.library.yale.edu/vufind/Record/3440753.
Donne, John. The Complete Poetry and Selected Prose of John Donne. Modern Library Pbk. ed. New York City: Modern Library, 2001. Print.
Herbert, George. The Complete English Poems. Ed. J. J. M. Tobin. London: Penguin Classics, 2004. Print.
Inwood, Brad. “Stoicism.” Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Ed. Donald M. Borchert. 2nd ed. Vol. 9. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2006. 253-258. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 20 Oct. 2015.
Magris, Aldo. “Stoicism.” Encyclopedia of Religion. Ed. Lindsay Jones. 2nd ed. Vol. 13. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2005. 8740-8744. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 20 Oct. 2015.
Papy, Jan, “Justus Lipsius”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2011 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2011/entries/justus-lipsius/>.